Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights an

The General Assembly,


Reaffirming the importance of the observance of the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations for the promotion and protection of all human rights and fundamental freedoms for all persons in all countries of the world,

Reaffirming also the importance of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights2 and the International Covenants on Human Rights Resolution 2200 A (XXI), annex. as basic elements of international efforts to promote universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms and the importance of other human rights instruments adopted within the United Nations system, as well as those at the regional level,

Stressing that all members of the international community shall fulfil, jointly and separately, their solemn obligation to promote and encourage respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction of any kind, including distinctions based on race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status, and reaffirming the particular importance of achieving international cooperation to fulfil this obligation according to the Charter,

Acknowledging the important role of international cooperation for, and the valuable work of individuals, groups and associations in contributing to, the effective elimination of all violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms of peoples and individuals, including in relation to mass, flagrant or systematic violations such as those resulting from apartheid, all forms of racial discrimination, colonialism, foreign domination or occupation, aggression or threats to national sovereignty, national unity or territorial integrity and from the refusal to recognize the right of peoples to self-determination and the right of every people to exercise full sovereignty over its wealth and natural resources,

Recognizing the relationship between international peace and security and the enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms, and mindful that the absence of international peace and security does not excuse non-compliance,

Reiterating that all human rights and fundamental freedoms are universal, indivisible, interdependent and interrelated and should be promoted and implemented in a fair and equitable manner, without prejudice to the implementation of each of those rights and freedoms,

Stressing that the prime responsibility and duty to promote and protect human rights and fundamental freedoms lie with the State,

Recognizing the right and the responsibility of individuals, groups and associations to promote respect for and foster knowledge of human rights and fundamental freedoms at the national and international levels,
Declares:

Article 1


Everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, to promote and to strive for the protection and realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms at the national and international levels.


Article 2


1. Each State has a prime responsibility and duty to protect, promote and implement all human rights and fundamental freedoms, inter alia, by adopting such steps as may be necessary to create all conditions necessary in the social, economic, political and other fields, as well as the legal guarantees required to ensure that all persons under its jurisdiction, individually and in association with others, are able to enjoy all those rights and freedoms in practice.

2. Each State shall adopt such legislative, administrative and other steps as may be necessary to ensure that the rights and freedoms referred to in the present Declaration are effectively guaranteed.


Article 3


Domestic law consistent with the Charter of the United Nations and other international obligations of the State in the field of human rights and fundamental freedoms is the juridical framework within which human rights and fundamental freedoms should be implemented and enjoyed and within which all activities referred to in the present Declaration for the promotion, protection and effective realization of those rights and freedoms should be conducted.


Article 4


Nothing in the present Declaration shall be construed as impairing or contradicting the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations or as restricting or derogating from the provisions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,2 the International Covenants on Human Rights3 and other international instruments and commitments applicable in this field.


Article 5


For the purpose of promoting and protecting human rights and fundamental freedoms, everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, at the national and international levels:

(a) To meet or assemble peacefully;

(b) To form, join and participate in non-governmental organizations, associations or groups;

(c) To communicate with non-governmental or intergovernmental organizations.


Article 6


Everyone has the right, individually and in association with others:
(a) To know, seek, obtain, receive and hold information about all human rights and fundamental freedoms, including having access to information as to how those rights and freedoms are given effect in domestic legislative, judicial or administrative systems;
(b) As provided for in human rights and other applicable international instruments, freely to publish, impart or disseminate to others views, information and knowledge on all human rights and fundamental freedoms;
(c) To study, discuss, form and hold opinions on the observance, both in law and in practice, of all human rights and fundamental freedoms and, through these and other appropriate means, to draw public attention to those matters.


Article 7


Everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, to develop and discuss new human rights ideas and principles and to advocate their acceptance.


Article 8


1. Everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, to have effective access, on a non-discriminatory basis, to participation in the government of his or her country and in the conduct of public affairs.

2. This includes, inter alia, the right, individually and in association with others, to submit to governmental bodies and agencies and organizations concerned with public affairs criticism and proposals for improving their functioning and to draw attention to any aspect of their work that may hinder or impede the promotion, protection and realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms.


Article 9


1. In the exercise of human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the promotion and protection of human rights as referred to in the present Declaration, everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, to benefit from an effective remedy and to be protected in the event of the violation of those rights.

2. To this end, everyone whose rights or freedoms are allegedly violated has the right, either in person or through legally authorized representation, to complain to and have that complaint promptly reviewed in a public hearing before an independent, impartial and competent judicial or other authority established by law and to obtain from such an authority a decision, in accordance with law, providing redress, including any compensation due, where there has been a violation of that person's rights or freedoms, as well as enforcement of the eventual decision and award, all without undue delay.

3. To the same end, everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, inter alia:
(a) To complain about the policies and actions of individual officials and governmental bodies with regard to violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms, by petition or other appropriate means, to competent domestic judicial, administrative or legislative authorities or any other competent authority provided for by the legal system of the State, which should render their decision on the complaint without undue delay;
(b) To attend public hearings, proceedings and trials so as to form an opinion on their compliance with national law and applicable international obligations and commitments;
(c) To offer and provide professionally qualified legal assistance or other relevant advice and assistance in defending human rights and fundamental freedoms.

4. To the same end, and in accordance with applicable international instruments and procedures, everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, to unhindered access to and communication with international bodies with general or special competence to receive and consider communications on matters of human rights and fundamental freedoms.

5. The State shall conduct a prompt and impartial investigation or ensure that an inquiry takes place whenever there is reasonable ground to believe that a violation of human rights and fundamental freedoms has occurred in any territory under its jurisdiction.


Article 10


No one shall participate, by act or by failure to act where required, in violating human rights and fundamental freedoms and no one shall be subjected to punishment or adverse action of any kind for refusing to do so.


Article 11


Everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, to the lawful exercise of his or her occupation or profession. Everyone who, as a result of his or her profession, can affect the human dignity, human rights and fundamental freedoms of others should respect those rights and freedoms and comply with relevant national and international standards of occupational and professional conduct or ethics.


Article 12


1. Everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, to participate in peaceful activities against violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms.

2. The State shall take all necessary measures to ensure the protection by the competent authorities of everyone, individually and in association with others, against any violence, threats, retaliation, de facto or de jure adverse discrimination, pressure or any other arbitrary action as a consequence of his or her legitimate exercise of the rights referred to in the present Declaration.

3. In this connection, everyone is entitled, individually and in association with others, to be protected effectively under national law in reacting against or opposing, through peaceful means, activities and acts, including those by omission, attributable to States that result in violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms, as well as acts of violence perpetrated by groups or individuals that affect the enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms.


Article 13


Everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, to solicit, receive and utilize resources for the express purpose of promoting and protecting human rights and fundamental freedoms through peaceful means, in accordance with article 3 of the present Declaration.


Article 14


1. The State has the responsibility to take legislative, judicial, administrative or other appropriate measures to promote the understanding by all persons under its jurisdiction of their civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights.

2. Such measures shall include, inter alia:

(a) The publication and widespread availability of national laws and regulations and of applicable basic international human rights instruments;
(b) Full and equal access to international documents in the field of human rights, including the periodic reports by the State to the bodies established by the international human rights treaties to which it is a party, as well as the summary records of discussions and the official reports of these bodies.

3. The State shall ensure and support, where appropriate, the creation and development of further independent national institutions for the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms in all territory under its jurisdiction, whether they be ombudsmen, human rights commissions or any other form of national institution.


Article 15


The State has the responsibility to promote and facilitate the teaching of human rights and fundamental freedoms at all levels of education and to ensure that all those responsible for training lawyers, law enforcement officers, the personnel of the armed forces and public officials include appropriate elements of human rights teaching in their training programme.


Article 16


Individuals, non-governmental organizations and relevant institutions have an important role to play in contributing to making the public more aware of questions relating to all human rights and fundamental freedoms through activities such as education, training and research in these areas to strengthen further, inter alia, understanding, tolerance, peace and friendly relations among nations and among all racial and religious groups, bearing in mind the various backgrounds of the societies and communities in which they carry out their activities.


Article 17


In the exercise of the rights and freedoms referred to in the present Declaration, everyone, acting individually and in association with others, shall be subject only to such limitations as are in accordance with applicable international obligations and are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society.


Article 18


1. Everyone has duties towards and within the community, in which alone the free and full development of his or her personality is possible.
2. Individuals, groups, institutions and non-governmental organizations have an important role to play and a responsibility in safeguarding democracy, promoting human rights and fundamental freedoms and contributing to the promotion and advancement of democratic societies, institutions and processes.
3. Individuals, groups, institutions and non-governmental organizations also have an important role and a responsibility in contributing, as appropriate, to the promotion of the right of everyone to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other human rights instruments can be fully realized.


Article 19


Nothing in the present Declaration shall be interpreted as implying for any individual, group or organ of society or any State the right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of the rights and freedoms referred to in the present Declaration.


Article 20


Nothing in the present Declaration shall be interpreted as permitting States to support and promote activities of individuals, groups of individuals, institutions or non-governmental organizations contrary to the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations.

Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious or Linguistic Minorities

Adopted by General Assembly resolution 47/135 of 18 December 1992

The General Assembly,

Reaffirming that one of the basic aims of the United Nations, as proclaimed in the Charter, is to promote and encourage respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all, without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion,

Reaffirming faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small,

Desiring to promote the realization of the principles contained in the Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, and the Convention on the Rights of the Child, as well as other relevant international instruments that have been adopted at the universal or regional level and those concluded between individual States Members of the United Nations,

Inspired by the provisions of article 27 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights concerning the rights of persons belonging to ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities,

Considering that the promotion and protection of the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities contribute to the political and social stability of States in which they live,

Emphasizing that the constant promotion and realization of the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities, as an integral part of the development of society as a whole and within a democratic framework based on the rule of law, would contribute to the strengthening of friendship and cooperation among peoples and States,

Considering that the United Nations has an important role to play regarding the protection of minorities,

Bearing in mind the work done so far within the United Nations system, in particular by the Commission on Human Rights, the Subcommission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities and the bodies established pursuant to the International Covenants on Human Rights and other relevant international human rights instruments in promoting and protecting the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities,

Taking into account the important work which is done by intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations in protecting minorities and in promoting and protecting the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities,

Recognizing the need to ensure even more effective implementation of international human rights instruments with regard to the rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities,

Proclaims this Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities:

Article 1


1. States shall protect the existence and the national or ethnic, cultural, religious and linguistic identity of minorities within their respective territories and shall encourage conditions for the promotion of that identity.

2. States shall adopt appropriate legislative and other measures to achieve those ends.


Article 2


1. Persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities (hereinafter referred to as persons belonging to minorities) have the right to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practise their own religion, and to use their own language, in private and in public, freely and without interference or any form of discrimination.

2. Persons belonging to minorities have the right to participate effectively in cultural, religious, social, economic and public life.

3. Persons belonging to minorities have the right to participate effectively in decisions on the national and, where appropriate, regional level concerning the minority to which they belong or the regions in which they live, in a manner not incompatible with national legislation.

4. Persons belonging to minorities have the right to establish and maintain their own associations.

5. Persons belonging to minorities have the right to establish and maintain, without any discrimination, free and peaceful contacts with other members of their group and with persons belonging to other minorities, as well as contacts across frontiers with citizens of other States to whom they are related by national or ethnic, religious or linguistic ties.


Article 3


1. Persons belonging to minorities may exercise their rights, including those set forth in the present Declaration, individually as well as in community with other members of their group, without any discrimination.

2. No disadvantage shall result for any person belonging to a minority as the consequence of the exercise or non-exercise of the rights set forth in the present Declaration.


Article 4


1. States shall take measures where required to ensure that persons belonging to minorities may exercise fully and effectively all their human rights and fundamental freedoms without any discrimination and in full equality before the law.

2. States shall take measures to create favourable conditions to enable persons belonging to minorities to express their characteristics and to develop their culture, language, religion, traditions and customs, except where specific practices are in violation of national law and contrary to international standards.

3. States should take appropriate measures so that, wherever possible, persons belonging to minorities may have adequate opportunities to learn their mother tongue or to have instruction in their mother tongue.

4. States should, where appropriate, take measures in the field of education, in order to encourage knowledge of the history, traditions, language and culture of the minorities existing within their territory. Persons belonging to minorities should have adequate opportunities to gain knowledge of the society as a whole.

5. States should consider appropriate measures so that persons belonging to minorities may participate fully in the economic progress and development in their country.


Article 5


1. National policies and programmes shall be planned and implemented with due regard for the legitimate interests of persons belonging to minorities.

2. Programmes of cooperation and assistance among States should be planned and implemented with due regard for the legitimate interests of persons belonging to minorities.


Article 6


States should cooperate on questions relating to persons belonging to minorities, inter alia, exchanging information and experiences, in order to promote mutual understanding and confidence.


Article 7


States should cooperate in order to promote respect for the rights set forth in the present Declaration.


Article 8


1. Nothing in the present Declaration shall prevent the fulfilment of international obligations of States in relation to persons belonging to minorities. In particular, States shall fulfil in good faith the obligations and commitments they have assumed under international treaties and agreements to which they are parties.

2. The exercise of the rights set forth in the present Declaration shall not prejudice the enjoyment by all persons of universally recognized human rights and fundamental freedoms.

3. Measures taken by States to ensure the effective enjoyment of the rights set forth in the present Declaration shall not prima facie be considered contrary to the principle of equality contained in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

4. Nothing in the present Declaration may be construed as permitting any activity contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations, including sovereign equality, territorial integrity and political independence of States.


Article 9


The specialized agencies and other organizations of the United Nations system shall contribute to the full realization of the rights and principles set forth in the present Declaration, within their respective fields of competence.

Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) ConventionConvention (No. 111) concerning Discrimination in respect of Employment and Occupation

Adopted on 25 June 1958 by the General Conference of the International Labour Organisation at its forty-second sessionentry into force 15 June 1960, in accordance with Article 8
The General Conference of the International Labour Organisation,

Having been convened at Geneva by the Governing Body of the International Labour Office, and having met in its forty-second session on 4 June 1958, and

Having decided upon the adoption of certain proposals with regard to discrimination in the field of employment and occupation, which is the fourth item on the agenda of the session, and

Having determined that these proposals shall take the form of an international Convention, and

Considering that the Declaration of Philadelphia affirms that all human beings, irrespective of race, creed or sex, have the right to pursue both their material well-being and their spiritual development in conditions of freedom and dignity, of economic security and equal opportunity, and

Considering further that discrimination constitutes a violation of rights enunciated by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,

Adopts this twenty-fifth day of June of the year one thousand nine hundred and fifty-eight the following Convention, which may be cited as the Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958:

Article 1


1. For the purpose of this Convention the term "discrimination" includes:
(a) Any distinction, exclusion or preference made on the basis of race, colour, sex, religion, political opinion, national extraction or social origin, which has the effect of nullifying or impairing equality of opportunity or treatment in employment or occupation;
(b) Such other distinction, exclusion or preference which has the effect of nullifying or impairing equality of opportunity or treatment in employment or occupation as may be determined by the Member concerned after consultation with representative employers' and workers' organisations, where such exist, and with other appropriate bodies.

2. Any distinction, exclusion or preference in respect of a particular job based on the inherent requirements thereof shall not be deemed to be discrimination.

3. For the purpose of this Convention the terms "employment" and "occupation" include access to vocational training, access to employment and to particular occupations, and terms and conditions of employment.


Article 2


Each Member for which this Convention is in force undertakes to declare and pursue a national policy designed to promote, by methods appropriate to national conditions and practice, equality of opportunity and treatment in respect of employment and occupation, with a view to eliminating any discrimination in respect thereof.


Article 3


Each Member for which this Convention is in force undertakes, by methods appropriate to national conditions and practice:

(a) To seek the co-operation of employers' and workers' organisations and other appropriate bodies in promoting the acceptance and observance of this policy;

(b) To enact such legislation and to promote such educational programmes as may be calculated to secure the acceptance and observance of the policy;

(c) To repeal any statutory provisions and modify any administrative instructions or practices which are inconsistent with the policy;

(d) To pursue the policy in respect of employment under the direct control of a national authority;

(e) To ensure observance of the policy in activities of vocational guidance, vocational training and placement services under the direction of a national authority;

(f) To indicate in its annual reports on the application of the Convention the action taken in pursuance of the policy and the results secured by such action.


Article 4


Any measures affecting an individual who is justifiably suspected of, or engaged in, activities prejudicial to the security of the State shall not be deemed to be discrimination, provided that the individual concerned shall have the right to appeal to a competent body established in accordance with national practice.


Article 5


1. Special measures of protection or assistance provided in other Conventions or Recommendations adopted by the International Labour Conference shall not be deemed to be discrimination.

2. Any Member may, after consultation with representative employers' and workers' organisations, where such exist, determine that other special measures designed to meet the particular requirements of persons who, for reasons such as sex, age, disablement, family responsibilities or social or cultural status, are generally recognised to require special protection or assistance, shall not be deemed to be discrimination.


Article 6


Each Member which ratifies this Convention undertakes to apply it to non-metropolitan territories in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution of the International Labour Organisation.


Article 7


The formal ratifications of this Convention shall be communicated to the Director-General of the International Labour Office for registration.


Article 8


1. This Convention shall be binding only upon those Members of the International Labour Organisation whose ratifications have been registered with the Director-General.

2. It shall come into force twelve months after the date on which the ratifications of two Members have been registered with the Director General.

3. Thereafter, this Convention shall come into force for any Member twelve months after the date on which its ratification has been registered.


Article 9


1. A Member which has ratified this Convention may denounce it after the expiration of ten years from the date on which the Convention first comes into force, by an act communicated to the Director-General of the International Labour Office for registration. Such denunciation shall not take effect until one year after the date on which it is registered.

2. Each Member which has ratified this Convention and which does not, within the year following the expiration of the period of ten years mentioned in the preceding paragraph, exercise the right of denunciation provided for in this article, will be bound for another period often years and, thereafter, may denounce this Convention at the expiration of each period of ten years under the terms provided for in this article.


Article 10


1. The Director-General of the International Labour Office shall notify all Members of the International Labour Organisation of the registration of all ratifications and denunciations communicated to him by the Members of the Organisation.

2. When notifying the Members of the Organisation of the registration of the second ratification communicated to him, the Director-General shall draw the attention of the Members of the Organisation to the date upon which the Convention will come into force.


Article 11


The Director-General of the International Labour Office shall communicate to the Secretary-General of the United Nations for registration in accordance with Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations full particulars of all ratifications and acts of denunciation registered by him in accordance with the provisions of the preceding articles.


Article 12


At such times as it may consider necessary the Governing Body of the International Labour Office shall present to the General Conference a report on the working of this Convention and shall examine the desirability of placing on the agenda of the Conference the question of its revision in whole or in part.


Article 13


1. Should the Conference adopt a new Convention revising this Convention in whole or in part, then, unless the new Convention otherwise provides:

(a) The ratification by a Member of the new revising Convention shall ipso jure involve the immediate denunciation of this Convention, notwithstanding the provisions of article 9 above, if and when the new revising Convention shall have come into force;

(b) As from the date when the new revising Convention comes into force this Convention shall cease to be open to ratification by the Members.

2. This Convention shall in any case remain in force in its actual form and content for those Members which have ratified it but have not ratified the revising Convention.


Article 14


The English and French versions of the text of this Convention are equally authoritative.

The foregoing is the authentic text of the Convention duly adopted by the General Conference of the International Labour Organisation during its forty-second session which was held at Geneva and declared closed the twenty-sixth day of June 1958.

IN FAITH WHEREOF we have appended our signatures this fifth day of July 1958.

Equal Remuneration ConventionConvention (No.100) concerning Equal Remuneration for Men and Women Workers for Work of Equal Value

Adopted on 29 June 1951 by the General Conference of the International Labour Organisation at its thirty-fourth session
entry into force 23 May 1953, in accordance with Article 6

The General Conference of the International Labour Organisation,

Having been convened at Geneva by the Governing Body of the International Labour Office, and having met in its thirty-fourth session on 6 June 1951, and

Having decided upon the adoption of certain proposals with regard to the principle of equal remuneration for men and women workers for work of equal value, which is the seventh item on the agenda of the session, and

Having determined that these proposals shall take the form of an international Convention, Adopts this twenty-ninth day of June of the year one thousand nine hundred and fifty-one the following Convention, which may be cited as the Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951:

Article 1

For the purpose of this Convention:
(a) The term "remuneration" includes the ordinary, basic or minimum wage or salary and any additional emoluments whatsoever payable directly or indirectly, whether in cash or in kind, by the employer to the worker and arising out of the worker's employment;
(b) The term "equal remuneration for men and women workers for work of equal value" refers to rates of remuneration established without discrimination based on sex.

Article 2

1. Each Member shall, by means appropriate to the methods in operation for determining rates of remuneration, promote and, in so far as is consistent with such methods, ensure the application to all workers of the principle of equal remuneration for men and women workers for work of equal value.
2. This principle may be applied by means of:
(a) National laws or regulations;
(b) Legally established or recognised machinery for wage determination;
(c) Collective agreements between employers and workers; or
(d) A combination of these various means.

Article 3

1. Where such action will assist in giving effect to the provisions of this Convention, measures shall be taken to promote objective appraisal of jobs on the basis of the work to be performed.

2. The methods to be followed in this appraisal may be decided upon by the authorities responsible for the determination of rates of remuneration, or, where such rates are determined by collective agreements, by the parties thereto.

3. Differential rates between workers, which correspond, without regard to sex, to differences, as determined by such objective appraisal, in the work to be performed, shall not be considered as being contrary to the principle of equal remuneration for men and women workers for work of equal value.

Article 4

Each Member shall co-operate as appropriate with the employers' and workers, organisations concerned for the purpose of giving effect to the provisions of this Convention.

Article 5

The formal ratification of this Convention shall be communicated to the Director-General of the International Labour Office for registration

Article 6

1. This Convention shall be binding only upon those Members of the International Labour Organisation whose ratifications have been registered with the Director-General.

2. It shall come into force twelve months after the date on which the ratifications of two Members have been registered with the Director-General.

3. Thereafter, this Convention shall come into force for any Member twelve months after the date on which its ratification has been registered.

Article 7

1. Declarations communicated to the Director-General of the International Labour Office in accordance with paragraph 2 of article 35 of the Constitution of the International Labour Organisation shall indicate:

(a) The territories in respect of which the Member concerned undertakes that the provisions of the Convention shall be applied without modification;

(b) The territories in respect of which it undertakes that the provisions of the Convention shall be applied subject to modifications, together with details of the said modifications;

(c) The territories in respect of which the Convention is inapplicable and in such cases the grounds on which it is inapplicable;

(d) The territories in respect of which it reserves its decisions pending further consideration of the position.

2. The undertakings referred to in subparagraphs (a) and (b) of paragraph I of this article shall be deemed to be an integral part of the ratification and shall have the force of ratification.

3. Any member may at any time by a subsequent declaration cancel in whole or in part any reservation made in its original declaration by virtue of subparagraphs (b), (c) or (d) of paragraph I of this article.

4. Any Member may, at any time at which the Convention is subject to denunciation in accordance with the provisions of article 9, communicate to the Director-General a declaration modifying in any other respect the terms of any former declaration and stating the present position in respect of such territories as it may specify.

Article 8

1 . Declarations communicated to the Director-General of the International Labour Office in accordance with paragraphs 4 and 5 of article 35 of the Constitution of the International Labour Organisation shall indicate whether the provisions of the Convention will be applied in the territory concerned without modification or subject to modification; when the declaration indicates that the provisions of the Convention will be applied subject to modification, it shall give details of the said modifications.

2. The Member, Members or international authority concerned may at any time by a subsequent declaration renounce in whole or in part the right to have recourse to any modification indicated in any former declaration.

3. The Member, Members or international authority concerned may, at any time at which this Convention is subject to denunciation in accordance with the provisions of article 9, communicate to the Director-General a declaration modifying in any other respect the terms of any former declaration and stating the present position in respect of the application of the Convention.

Article 9

1. A Member which has ratified this Convention may denounce it after the expiration of ten years from the date on which the Convention first comes into force, by an act communicated to the Director-General of the International Labour Office for registration. Such denunciation shall not take effect until one year after the date on which it is registered.

2. Each Member which has ratified this Convention and which does not, within the year following the expiration of the period of ten years mentioned in the preceding paragraph, exercise the right of denunciation provided for in this article, will be bound for another period of ten years and, thereafter, may denounce this Convention at the expiration of each period of ten years under the terms provided for in this article.

Article 10

1 . The Director-General of the International Labour Office shall notify all Members of the International Labour Organisation of the registration of all ratifications, declarations and denunciations communicated to him by the Members of the Organisation.

2. When notifying the Members of the Organisation of the registration of the second ratification communicated to him, the Director-General shall draw the attention of the Members of the Organisation to the date upon which the Convention will come into force.

Article 11

The Director-General of the International Labour Office shall communicate to the Secretary-General of the United Nations for registration in accordance with Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations full particulars of all ratifications, declarations and acts of denunciation registered by him in accordance with the provisions of the preceding articles.

Article 12

At such times as it may consider necessary, the Governing Body of the International Labour Office shall present to the General Conference a report on the working of this Convention and shall examine the desirability of placing on the agenda of the Conference the question of its revision in whole or in part.

Article 13

1. Should the Conference adopt a new Convention revising this Convention in whole or in part, then, unless the new Convention otherwise provides:

(a) The ratification by a Member of the new revising Convention shall ipso jure involve the immediate denunciation of this Convention, notwithstanding the provisions of article 9 above, if and when the new revising Convention shall have come into force;

(b) As from the date when the new revising Convention comes into force this Convention shall cease to be open to ratification by the Members.

2. This Convention shall in any case remain in force in its actual form and content for those Members which have ratified it but have not ratified the revising Convention.

Article 14

The English and French versions of the text of this Convention are equally authoritative. The foregoing is the authentic text of the Convention duly adopted by the General Conference of the International Labour Organisation during its thirty-fourth session which was held at Geneva and declared closed the twenty-ninth day of June 1951.

IN FAITH WHEREOF we have appended our signatures this second day of August 1951.

International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid

Adopted and opened for signature, ratification by General Assembly resolution 3068 (XXVIII) of 30 November 1973

entry into force 18 July 1976, in accordance with article XV

The States Parties to the present Convention,

Recalling the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations, in which all Members pledged themselves to take joint and separate action in co-operation with the Organization for the achievement of universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion,

Considering the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which states that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights and that everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in the Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour or national origin,

Considering the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, in which the General Assembly stated that the process of liberation is irresistible and irreversible and that, in the interests of human dignity, progress and justice, an end must be put to colonialism and all practices of segregation and discrimination associated therewith,

Observing that, in accordance with the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, States particularly condemn racial segregation and apartheid and undertake to prevent, prohibit and eradicate all practices of this nature in territories under their jurisdiction,

Observing that, in the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, certain acts which may also be qualified as acts of apartheid constitute a crime under international law,

Observing that, in the Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity, "inhuman acts resulting from the policy of apartheid" are qualified as crimes against humanity,

Observing that the General Assembly of the United Nations has adopted a number of resolutions in which the policies and practices of apartheid are condemned as a crime against humanity,

Observing that the Security Council has emphasized that apartheid and its continued intensification and expansion seriously disturb and threaten international peace and security,

Convinced that an International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid would make it possible to take more effective measures at the international and national levels with a view to the suppression and punishment of the crime of apartheid, Have agreed as follows:

Article I

1. The States Parties to the present Convention declare that apartheid is a crime against humanity and that inhuman acts resulting from the policies and practices of apartheid and similar policies and practices of racial segregation and discrimination, as defined in article II of the Convention, are crimes violating the principles of international law, in particular the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations, and constituting a serious threat to international peace and security. 2. The States Parties to the present Convention declare criminal those organizations, institutions and individuals committing the crime of apartheid.

Article II

For the purpose of the present Convention, the term "the crime of apartheid", which shall include similar policies and practices of racial segregation and discrimination as practised in southern Africa, shall apply to the following inhuman acts committed for the purpose of establishing and maintaining domination by one racial group of persons over any other racial group of persons and systematically oppressing them:
(a) Denial to a member or members of a racial group or groups of the right to life and liberty of person:
(i) By murder of members of a racial group or groups;
(ii) By the infliction upon the members of a racial group or groups of serious bodily or mental harm, by the infringement of their freedom or dignity, or by subjecting them to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment;
(iii) By arbitrary arrest and illegal imprisonment of the members of a racial group or groups;

(b) Deliberate imposition on a racial group or groups of living conditions calculated to cause its or their physical destruction in whole or in part;
(c) Any legislative measures and other measures calculated to prevent a racial group or groups from participation in the political, social, economic and cultural life of the country and the deliberate creation of conditions preventing the full development of such a group or groups, in particular by denying to members of a racial group or groups basic human rights and freedoms, including the right to work, the right to form recognized trade unions, the right to education, the right to leave and to return to their country, the right to a nationality, the right to freedom of movement and residence, the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association;
(d) Any measures, including legislative measures, designed to divide the population along racial lines by the creation of separate reserves and ghettos for the members of a racial group or groups, the prohibition of mixed marriages among members of various racial groups, the expropriation of landed property belonging to a racial group or groups or to members thereof; (e) Exploitation of the labour of the members of a racial group or groups, in particular by submitting them to forced labour;
(f) Persecution of organizations and persons, by depriving them of fundamental rights and freedoms, because they oppose apartheid.

Article III

International criminal responsibility shall apply, irrespective of the motive involved, to individuals, members of organizations and institutions and representatives of the State, whether residing in the territory of the State in which the acts are perpetrated or in some other State, whenever they:

(a) Commit, participate in, directly incite or conspire in the commission of the acts mentioned in article II of the present Convention;

(b) Directly abet, encourage or co-operate in the commission of the crime of apartheid.

Article IV

The States Parties to the present Convention undertake:

(a) To adopt any legislative or other measures necessary to suppress as well as to prevent any encouragement of the crime of apartheid and similar segregationist policies or their manifestations and to punish persons guilty of that crime;

(b) To adopt legislative, judicial and administrative measures to prosecute, bring to trial and punish in accordance with their jurisdiction persons responsible for, or accused of, the acts defined in article II of the present Convention, whether or not such persons reside in the territory of the State in which the acts are committed or are nationals of that State or of some other State or are stateless persons.

Article V

Persons charged with the acts enumerated in article II of the present Convention may be tried by a competent tribunal of any State Party to the Convention which may acquire jurisdiction over the person of the accused or by an international penal tribunal having jurisdiction with respect to those States Parties which shall have accepted its jurisdiction.

Article VI

The States Parties to the present Convention undertake to accept and carry out in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations the decisions taken by the Security Council aimed at the prevention, suppression and punishment of the crime of apartheid, and to co-operate in the implementation of decisions adopted by other competent organs of the United Nations with a view to achieving the purposes of the Convention.

Article VII

1. The States Parties to the present Convention undertake to submit periodic reports to the group established under article IX on the legislative, judicial, administrative or other measures that they have adopted and that give effect to the provisions of the Convention.

2. Copies of the reports shall be transmitted through the Secretary-General of the United Nations to the Special Committee on Apartheid.

Article VIII

Any State Party to the present Convention may call upon any competent organ of the United Nations to take such action under the Charter of the United Nations as it considers appropriate for the prevention and suppression of the crime of apartheid.

Article IX

1. The Chairman of the Commission on Human Rights shall appoint a group consisting of three members of the Commission on Human Rights, who are also representatives of States Parties to the present Convention, to consider reports submitted by States Parties in accordance with article VII.

2. If, among the members of the Commission on Human Rights, there are no representatives of States Parties to the present Convention or if there are fewer than three such representatives, the Secretary-General of the United Nations shall, after consulting all States Parties to the Convention, designate a representative of the State Party or representatives of the States Parties which are not members of the Commission on Human Rights to take part in the work of the group established in accordance with paragraph 1 of this article, until such time as representatives of the States Parties to the Convention are elected to the Commission on Human Rights.

3. The group may meet for a period of not more than five days, either before the opening or after the closing of the session of the Commission on Human Rights, to consider the reports submitted in accordance with article VII.

Article X

1 . The States Parties to the present Convention empower the Commission on Human Rights:

(a) To request United Nations organs, when transmitting copies of petitions under article 15 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, to draw its attention to complaints concerning acts which are enumerated in article II of the present Convention;

(b) To prepare, on the basis of reports from competent organs of the United Nations and periodic reports from States Parties to the present Convention, a list of individuals, organizations, institutions and representatives of States which are alleged to be responsible for the crimes enumerated in article II of the Convention, as well as those against whom legal proceedings have been undertaken by States Parties to the Convention;

(c) To request information from the competent United Nations organs concerning measures taken by the authorities responsible for the administration of Trust and Non-Self-Governing Territories, and all other Territories to which General Assembly resolution 1514 (XV) of 14 December 1960 applies, with regard to such individuals alleged to be responsible for crimes under article II of the Convention who are believed to be under their territorial and administrative jurisdiction.

2. Pending the achievement of the objectives of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, contained in General Assembly resolution 1514 (XV), the provisions of the present Convention shall in no way limit the right of petition granted to those peoples by other international instruments or by the United Nations and its specialized agencies.

Article XI

1. Acts enumerated in article II of the present Convention shall not be considered political crimes for the purpose of extradition.

2. The States Parties to the present Convention undertake in such cases to grant extradition in accordance with their legislation and with the treaties in force.

Article XII

Disputes between States Parties arising out of the interpretation, application or implementation of the present Convention which have not been settled by negotiation shall, at the request of the States parties to the dispute, be brought before the International Court of Justice, save where the parties to the dispute have agreed on some other form of settlement.

Article XIII

The present Convention is open for signature by all States. Any State which does not sign the Convention before its entry into force may accede to it.

Article XIV

1. The present Convention is subject to ratification. Instruments of ratification shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

2. Accession shall be effected by the deposit of an instrument of accession with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

Article XV

1. The present Convention shall enter into force on the thirtieth day after the date of the deposit with the Secretary-General of the United Nations of the twentieth instrument of ratification or accession.

2. For each State ratifying the present Convention or acceding to it after the deposit of the twentieth instrument of ratification or instrument of accession, the Convention shall enter into force on the thirtieth day after the date of the deposit of its own instrument of ratification or instrument of accession.

Article XVI

A State Party may denounce the present Convention by written notification to the Secretary-General of the United Nations. Denunciation shall take effect one year after the date of receipt of the notification by the Secretary-General.

Article XVII

1. A request for the revision of the present Convention may be made at any time by any State Party by means of a notification in writing addressed to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

2. The General Assembly of the United Nations shall decide upon the steps, if any, to be taken in respect of such request.

Article XVIII

The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall inform all States of the following particulars:

(a) Signatures, ratifications and accessions under articles XIII and XIV;

(b) The date of entry into force of the present Convention under article XV;

(c) Denunciations under article XVI;

(d) Notifications under article XVII.

Article XIX

1. The present Convention, of which the Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited in the archives of the United Nations.

2. The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall transmit certified copies of the present Convention to all States.

Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary

Adopted by the Seventh United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders held at Milan from 26 August to 6 September 1985 and endorsed by General Assembly resolutions 40/32 of 29 November 1985 and 40/146 of 13 December 1985

Whereas in the Charter of the United Nations the peoples of the world affirm, inter alia, their determination to establish conditions under which justice can be maintained to achieve international co-operation in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms without any discrimination,

Whereas the Universal Declaration of Human Rights enshrines in particular the principles of equality before the law, of the presumption of innocence and of the right to a fair and public hearing by a competent, independent and impartial tribunal established by law,

Whereas the International Covenants on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and on Civil and Political Rights both guarantee the exercise of those rights, and in addition, the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights further guarantees the right to be tried without undue delay,

Whereas frequently there still exists a gap between the vision underlying those principles and the actual situation,

Whereas the organization and administration of justice in every country should be inspired by those principles, and efforts should be undertaken to translate them fully into reality,

Whereas rules concerning the exercise of judicial office should aim at enabling judges to act in accordance with those principles, Whereas judges are charged with the ultimate decision over life, freedoms, rights, duties and property of citizens,

Whereas the Sixth United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, by its resolution 16, called upon the Committee on Crime Prevention and Control to include among its priorities the elaboration of guidelines relating to the independence of judges and the selection, professional training and status of judges and prosecutors,

Whereas it is, therefore, appropriate that consideration be first given to the role of judges in relation to the system of justice and to the importance of their selection, training and conduct, The following basic principles, formulated to assist Member States in their task of securing and promoting the independence of the judiciary should be taken into account and respected by Governments within the framework of their national legislation and practice and be brought to the attention of judges, lawyers, members of the executive and the legislature and the public in general. The principles have been formulated principally with professional judges in mind, but they apply equally, as appropriate, to lay judges, where they exist.

Independence of the judiciary

1. The independence of the judiciary shall be guaranteed by the State and enshrined in the Constitution or the law of the country. It is the duty of all governmental and other institutions to respect and observe the independence of the judiciary.
2. The judiciary shall decide matters before them impartially, on the basis of facts and in accordance with the law, without any restrictions, improper influences, inducements, pressures, threats or interferences, direct or indirect, from any quarter or for any reason.
3. The judiciary shall have jurisdiction over all issues of a judicial nature and shall have exclusive authority to decide whether an issue submitted for its decision is within its competence as defined by law.
4. There shall not be any inappropriate or unwarranted interference with the judicial process, nor shall judicial decisions by the courts be subject to revision. This principle is without prejudice to judicial review or to mitigation or commutation by competent authorities of sentences imposed by the judiciary, in accordance with the law.
5. Everyone shall have the right to be tried by ordinary courts or tribunals using established legal procedures. Tribunals that do not use the duly established procedures of the legal process shall not be created to displace the jurisdiction belonging to the ordinary courts or judicial tribunals.
6. The principle of the independence of the judiciary entitles and requires the judiciary to ensure that judicial proceedings are conducted fairly and that the rights of the parties are respected.
7. It is the duty of each Member State to provide adequate resources to enable the judiciary to properly perform its functions.

Freedom of expression and association

1. In accordance with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, members of the judiciary are like other citizens entitled to freedom of expression, belief, association and assembly; provided, however, that in exercising such rights, judges shall always conduct themselves in such a manner as to preserve the dignity of their office and the impartiality and independence of the judiciary.
2. Judges shall be free to form and join associations of judges or other organizations to represent their interests, to promote their professional training and to protect their judicial independence.
   

Qualifications, selection and training

1. Persons selected for judicial office shall be individuals of integrity and ability with appropriate training or qualifications in law. Any method of judicial selection shall safeguard against judicial appointments for improper motives. In the selection of judges, there shall be no discrimination against a person on the grounds of race, colour, sex, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or status, except that a requirement, that a candidate for judicial office must be a national of the country concerned, shall not be considered discriminatory.

Conditions of service and tenure

1. The term of office of judges, their independence, security, adequate remuneration, conditions of service, pensions and the age of retirement shall be adequately secured by law.
2. Judges, whether appointed or elected, shall have guaranteed tenure until a mandatory retirement age or the expiry of their term of office, where such exists.
3. Promotion of judges, wherever such a system exists, should be based on objective factors, in particular ability, integrity and experience.
4. The assignment of cases to judges within the court to which they belong is an internal matter of judicial administration. Professional secrecy and immunity
5. The judiciary shall be bound by professional secrecy with regard to their deliberations and to confidential information acquired in the course of their duties other than in public proceedings, and shall not be compelled to testify on such matters.
6. Without prejudice to any disciplinary procedure or to any right of appeal or to compensation from the State, in accordance with national law, judges should enjoy personal immunity from civil suits for monetary damages for improper acts or omissions in the exercise of their judicial functions.
   

Discipline, suspension and removal

1. A charge or complaint made against a judge in his/her judicial and professional capacity shall be processed expeditiously and fairly under an appropriate procedure. The judge shall have the right to a fair hearing. The examination of the matter at its initial stage shall be kept confidential, unless otherwise requested by the judge.
2. Judges shall be subject to suspension or removal only for reasons of incapacity or behaviour that renders them unfit to discharge their duties.
3. All disciplinary, suspension or removal proceedings shall be determined in accordance with established standards of judicial conduct.
4. Decisions in disciplinary, suspension or removal proceedings should be subject to an independent review. This principle may not apply to the decisions of the highest court and those of the legislature in impeachment or similar proceedings.

PENDAHULUAN

A. Latar Belakang Masalah

Sinyalemen Rasulullah S.A.W., yang menyatakan bahwa hukum Allah yang pertama kali akan terhapus dari muka bumi adalah hukum waris, menggugah penulis untuk mengkaji lebih dalam makna yang tersurat maupun yang tersirat dalam pernyataan beliau S.A.W. tersebut.
Sebelum membahas lebih lanjut mengenai kewarisan, perlu dikemukakan arti kata hukum terlebih dahulu. Berbagai ragam makna hukum berdampak pada bermacam persepsi atas penegakan hukum, satu sisi mengukurnya dengan pengertian normative, sisi yang lain mengukurnya sebagai gejala social.

1) Pengertian normative juga ada yang melihatnya dari sudut pandang mengenai esensi dan substansi hukum :
a. Hukum semata-mata diartikan sebagai aturan tertulis. Persoalan yang dihadapi, adalah tidak semua masalah hukum dimuat dalam aturan tertulis;
b. Hukum meliputi aturan tertulis dan tidak tertulis. Ketika hukum diartikan dalam arti tertulis dan tidak tertulis, tidak serta merta memudahkan penerapan hukumnya. Bila terjadi pertentangan antara aturan tertulis dengan tidak tertulis, doktrin mengajarkan “ Hukum tertulis didahulukan “. Persoalan lebih lanjut, kalau ternyata hukum tidak tertulis lebih sesuai dengan kesadaran hukum atau rasa keadilan atau kenyataan yang hidup dalam masyarakat. Hukum yang tidak tertulis merupakan “ The Living Law “, sedangkan secara social, hukum tertulis merupakan “ The Dead Law“.
c. Perkembangan lain, berpendapat agar kenyataan social harus menjadi dasar pertimbangan hakim. Hakim dapat mengenyampingkan hukum apabila tidak sesuai dengan kenyataan social. Terlalu menekankan kenyataan social dapat menimbulkan ketidakpastian hukum dan penerapan hukum menjadi sangat subjektif.

2) Hukum diartikan juga sebagai gejala social. Hukum tidak lain dari tingkah laku masyarakat. Ada yang mengartikannya sangat luas yaitu setiap aturan tingkah laku adalah hukum, termasuk kewajiban yang bersifat kesusilaan, kebiasaan-kebiasaan. Dalam bahasa masyarakat adat, hukum adalah segala sesuatu yang diadatkan. Ada yang memberi arti lebih sempit yaitu terbatas pada aturan tingkah laku yang mempunyai sanksi. Masalah yang timbul dalam menterjemahkan hukum sebagai gejala social :
Pertama : Hukum atau aturan tingkah laku sebagai gejala social dapat berbeda-beda antara satu tempat dengan tempat lain. Hukum adat Batak berbeda dengan hukum adat Minangkabau, hukum adapt Jawa berbeda dengan hukum adat Bali, dst. Bahkan disatu tempat seperti Minangkabau, Irian, Kalimantan, dll. Sering berbeda siapa sebenarnya sebagai ninik-mamak, kepala suku, kepala adat yang sah saling berebut kuasa antara satu kelompok dengan kelompok lain. Akibatnya, sejumlah tanah adat yang dijual oleh satu kelompok, digugat oleh kelompok lain yang mengaku lebih berhak atau lebih berkuasa atas tanah adat tersebut;
Kedua : Tidak mudah menentukan apakah suatu hukum atau aturan tingkah laku masih benar-benar hidup ataukah sudah ditinggalkan oleh masyarakat dan hanya tinggal sejarah (hukum) semata;
Ketiga : Memberi arti luas terhadap hukum atau aturan tingkah laku, seperti persoalan kenyataan social, dapat menyebabkan penegakan hukum menjadi sangat subjektif. Hakim sebagai penegak hukum (tak terkecuali harus menegakkan hukum adat) tergantung penemuan hukum para hakim bersangkutan, yang luas pengetahuan hukum adatnya berbeda dalam memberikan putusan dengan hakim yang tidak menguasai hukum adat di suatu tempat (padahal hakim selalu/rata-rata dua tahun berpindah dari satu tempat ke tempat yang lain yang berbeda-beda hukum adatnya).

Adapun pengertian waris secara etimologi yakni berasal dari kata : waritsa – yaritsu – wartsan yang berarti mempusakai, istilah yang sama artinya dengan waris adalah faraidh yang berarti ketentuan, menurut istilah adalah bagian yang telah ditentukan bagi ahli waris. Pengertian waris segi terminology adalah peralihan harta dari orang yang meninggal kepada ahli warisnya yang hidup, baik yang ditinggalkan berupa harta benda maupun berupa hak-hak syar’I (Muhammad Ali Ash-Shabuni, “Al Mawaris fi Asy Syari’ah al Islamiyah fi Daui Al Kitab wa As Sunnah”, Kairo: Dar al-Hadis, tt, hlm 33-34)

Kompilasi dari bahasa latin compilo berarti : penyusunan, hasil pengumpulan kata/tulisan/uraian dan lain-lain atau dengan kata lain suatu produk tulisan disusun dari karya orang lain dan disusun secara metodis.
Hukum Islam adalah hukum perdata Islam tertentu, yang menjadi hukum positif bagi umat Islam di Indonesia sekaligus merupakan hukum terapan bagi Peradilan Agama. Hukum Islam identik dengan fiqih Islam, dan bukan syari’ah Islam. Syari’ah Islam telah sempurna berlaku untuk segala zaman dan tempat, sedangkan fiqih Islam atau hukum Islam dapat berubah-ubah dan berbeda antara zaman sebelum dan zaman selanjutnya, antara satu masyarakat dengan masyarakat lainnya dan sebagainya.

Sejak keluarnya Instruksi presiden Nomor 1 Tahun 1991 tentang Kompilasi Hukum Islam dan ditindaklanjuti dengan Keputusan Menteri Agama Nomor 154 Tahun 1991, maka ketentuan mengenai pengertian Hukum kewarisan Islam, yang sebelumnya tersebar dalam berbagai kitab fiqih dapat mengacu pada Kompilasi Hukum Islam. Hukum Kewarisan dalam Kompilasi Hukum Islam merupakan ketentuan hukum hasil kesepakatan ‘alim ulama Indonesia sebagai suatu hasil “ Ijtihad Intiqaai ” setelah membahas berbagai kitab fiqih yang mu’tamad dari keempat madzhab terkemuka, study banding ke negara-negara yang telah menerapkan Hukum Islam ke dalam perundang-undangan negaranya, dan seminar-saminar.

Dalam hal ini beberapa macam ijtihad yakni :

• Ijtihad Intiqaai adalah ijtihad untuk memilih salah satu pendapat terkuat diantara berbagai pendapat yang ada dalam warisan fiqih Islam yang penuh dengan fatwa dan keputusan hukum.


• Ijtihad Insyaai, yaitu dengan mengambil konklusi (kesimpulan) hukum baru dalam suatu permasalahan, dimana permasalahan tersebut belum pernah dikemukakan oleh ulama terdahulu, baik masalah itu baru atau lama.


• ijtihad kontemporer, yakni metode gabungan diantara kedua metode ijtihad tersebut diatas.

Adapun definisi hukum kewarisan dalam pasal 171 KHI, menjelaskan bahwa :
hukum kewarisan adalah hukum yang mengatur tentang pemindahan hak pemilikan harta peninggalan (tirkah) pewaris, menentukan siapa-siapa yang berhak menjadi ahli waris dan berapa bagiannya masing-masing.

Pewaris adalah orang yang pada saat meninggalnya atau yang dinyatakan meninggal berdasarkan putusan pengadilan beragama Islam, meninggalkan ahli waris dan harta waris.

Ahli Waris adalah orang yang pada saat pewaris meninggal dunia, mempunyai hubungan darah atau hubungan perkawinan dengan pewaris, beragama Islam dan tidak terhalang karena hukum untuk menjadi ahli waris.

Harta peninggalan adalah harta yang ditinggalkan oleh pewaris baik yang berupa harta benda yang menjadi miliknya atau hak-haknya.

Harta Waris adalah harta bawaan ditambah bagian dari harta bersama setelah digunakan untuk keperluan pewaris selama sakit sampai meninggalnya, biaya pengurusan jenazah (tajhiz), pembayaran hutang, wasiat wajibah, dan pemberian untuk kerabat.

Hibah adalah pemberian suatu benda secara sukarela dan tanpa imbalan dari seseorang kepada orang lain yang masih hidup untuk dimiliki.

Anak Angkat adalah anak yang dalam hal pemeliharaan untuk hidupnya sehari-hari, biaya pendidikan dan sebagainya beralih tanggung jawabnya dari orang tua asal kepada orang tua angkatnya berdasarkan putusan Pengadilan.


Sumber Hukum Kewarisan

a. Al-Qur’an, merupakan sebagian besarsumber hukum waris yang banyak menjelaskan ketentuan-ketentuan fard tiap-tiap ahli waris, seperti yang tercantum dalam Surat an Nisa’ ayat 7, 11, 12, dan 176.

007. Bagi orang laki-laki ada hak bagian dari harta peninggalan ibu-bapak dan kerabatnya, dan bagi orang wanita ada hak bagian (pula) dari harta peninggalan ibu-bapak dan kerabatnya, baik sedikit atau banyak menurut bahagian yang telah ditetapkan.

011. Allah mensyari'atkan bagimu tentang (pembagian pusaka untuk) anak-anakmu. Yaitu : bahagian seorang anak lelaki sama dengan bahagian dua orang anak perempuan; dan jika anak itu semuanya perempuan lebih dari dua, maka bagi mereka dua pertiga dari harta yang ditinggalkan; jika anak perempuan itu seorang saja, maka ia memperoleh separo harta. Dan untuk dua orang ibu-bapak, bagi masing-masingnya seperenam dari harta yang ditinggalkan, jika yang meninggal itu mempunyai anak; jika orang yang meninggal tidak mempunyai anak dan ia diwarisi oleh ibu-bapanya (saja), maka ibunya mendapat sepertiga; jika yang meninggal itu mempunyai beberapa saudara, maka ibunya mendapat seperenam. (Pembagian-pembagian tersebut di atas) sesudah dipenuhi wasiat yang ia buat atau (dan) sesudah dibayar hutangnya. (Tentang) orang tuamu dan anak-anakmu, kamu tidak mengetahui siapa di antara mereka yang lebih dekat (banyak) manfaatnya bagimu. Ini adalah ketetapan dari Allah. Sesungguhnya Allah Maha Mengetahui lagi Maha Bijaksana.

012. Dan bagimu (suami-suami) seperdua dari harta yang ditinggalkan oleh isteri-isterimu, jika mereka tidak mempunyai anak. Jika isteri-isterimu itu mempunyai anak, maka kamu mendapat seperempat dari harta yang ditinggalkannya sesudah dipenuhi wasiat yang mereka buat atau (dan) seduah dibayar hutangnya. Para isteri memperoleh seperempat harta yang kamu tinggalkan jika kamu tidak mempunyai anak. Jika kamu mempunyai anak, maka para isteri memperoleh seperdelapan dari harta yang kamu tinggalkan sesudah dipenuhi wasiat yang kamu buat atau (dan) sesudah dibayar hutang-hutangmu. Jika seseorang mati, baik laki-laki maupun perempuan yang tidak meninggalkan ayah dan tidak meninggalkan anak, tetapi mempunyai seorang saudara laki-laki (seibu saja) atau seorang saudara perempuan (seibu saja), maka bagi masing-masing dari kedua jenis saudara itu seperenam harta. Tetapi jika saudara-saudara seibu itu lebih dari seorang, maka mereka bersekutu dalam yang sepertiga itu, sesudah dipenuhi wasiat yang dibuat olehnya atau sesudah dibayar hutangnya dengan tidak memberi mudharat (kepada ahli waris). (Allah menetapkan yang demikian itu sebagai) syari'at yang benar-benar dari Allah, dan Allah Maha Mengetahui lagi Maha Penyantun.

Sebab turunnya ayat 11 dan 12 tersebut diatas, menurut At-Thabari ada beberapa riwayat, diantaranya yaitu pengaduan isteri Sa’ad kepada Rasul karena saudara sa’ad telah mengambil semua warisan tanpa menyisakan sedikitpun untuk anak perempuan. Riwayat lain mengatakan bahwa ayat itu turun untuk membatalkan praktik-praktik jahiliyah yang hanya memberikan warisan kepada laki-laki yang sanggup berperang. At-Thabari juga mengatakan bahwa menurut pendapat Abu Bakar as, ayat 11 turun untuk mengatur hak kewarisan anak dan orang tua, ayat 12 tentang suami, istri dan saudara seibu, sedangkan ayat 176 tentang saudara sekandung (seayah)( At-Thabari, “Tafsir At Thabari”, Beirut : Dar Al-Fikr, 1978, VI, hlm. 28)

b. Hadist, yang antara lain diriwayatkan oleh Bukhari dan Muslim: artinya “Berikanlah harta pusaka kepada orang-orang yang berhak, sesudah itu sisanya diberikan kepada orang laki-laki yang lebih utama.”

c. Ijma’ dan ijtihad para sahabat, imam madzhab, dan para mujtahid dapat digunakan dalam pemecahan-pemecahan masalahmawaris yang belum dijelaskan oleh nash yang sharih. Sebagai contoh :
· Status saudara bersama-sama dengan kakek. Dalam al Qur’an, masalah ini tidak dijelaskan, kecuali dalam masalah kalalah. Akan tetapi, menurut kebanyakan sahabat dan imam madzhab yang mengutip pendapat Zaid bin Tsabit, saudara-saudara tersebut mendapat bagian waris secara muqasamah bersama dengan kakek.

d. Di Indonesia saat ini telah keluar Instruksi Presiden Nomor 1 Tahun 1991 yang pada intinya mengamanatkan pemberlakuan Kompilasi Hukum Islam kepada umat Islam. Oleh karena dalam Kompilasi Hukum tersebut terdapat ketentuan mengenai kewarisan, maka segala ketentuan mengenai kewarisan dapat mengacu kepada ketentuan yang terdapat di dalamnya.

3. Asas-asas Kewarisan
Pemindahan hak atas harta kekayaan seseorang setelah meninggal dunia kepada ahli warisnya, terlepas dari asas-asas kewarisan sebagai berikut:

1) Asas Ijbari
Asas Ijbari secara harfiyah berarti “memaksa”, asas ini merupakan kelanjutan dari prinsip tauhid yang mengandung arti bahwa peralihan harta dari pewaris kepada ahli warisnya berlaku secara otomatis sesuai dengan ketentuan Allah Ta’ala, tanpa digantungkan tanpa kehendak si pewaris atau ahli warisnya. Unsur memaksa disini menuntut setiap individu muslim untuk taat kepada hukum Allah sebagai konsekwensi logis dari pengakuannya kepada ke-Maha Esa-an Allah dan kerasulan Muhammad seperti dinyatakan melalui ucapan dua kalimat syahadat.

2) Asas Waratsa
Kata waratsa sering disebut dalam Al-Qur’an yang mengandung pengertian peralihan harta setelah kematian. Asas waratsa ini menyatakan, bahwa kewarisan itu hanya ada kalau ada yang meninggal dunia. Harta seseorang tidak dapat beralih kepada orang lain sebagai harta warisan selama orang yang mempunyai harta tersebut masih hidup. Islam tidak mengenai asas kewarisan testament sebagaimana diatur dalam hukum Barat, sebagaimana yang tertuang dalam pasal 171 KHI.

3) Asas Tsulutsailmal
Asas ini menyatakan, bahwa wasiat tidak boleh melebihi sepertiga dari jumlah harta waris, selain ketentuan tersebut juga dipersyaratkan untuk sahnya wasiat bila telah disepakati oleh para ahli waris, hal ini tercantum dalam pasal 195 ayat (2) yang berunyi :
“ Wasiat hanya diperbolehkan sebanyak-banyaknya seperti dalam harta warisan kecuali apabila semua ahli waris menyetujui.”

pasal 201 :
“ Apabila wasiat melebihi sepertiga dari harta warisan, sedangkan ahli waris ada yang tidak menyetujuinya, maka wasiat hanya dilaksanakan sampai batas seperti harta warisan.”
dan 209 :
(1). Harta peninggalan anak angkat dibagi berdasarkan pasal-pasal 176 sampai dengan 193 tersebut diatas, sedangkan terhadap orang tua angkat yang tidak menerima wasiat diberi wasiat wajibah sebanyak-banyaknya 1/3 dari harta warisan anak angkatnya.
(2). Terhadap anak angkat yang tidak menerima wasiat diberi wasiat wajibah sebanyak-banyaknya 1/3 dari harta warisan orang tua angatnya.

4) Asas Bilateral
Asas ini menentukan bahwa seseorang tidak hanya mewarisi dari garis bapak saja, akan tetapi juga mewaris menurut garis ibu, yang berarti bahwa seseorang dapat menerima hak atau bagian warisan dari kedua belah pihak, dari kerabat keturunan laki-laki dan dari kerabat keturunan perempuan (Q.S. IV : 7, 11 dan 176), sebagaimana yang tertuang dalam pasal 174 dan 176.

Pasal 174 :
(1). Kelompok-kelompok ahli waris terdiri dari :
a. Menurut hubungan darah :
b. Golongan laki-laki terdiri dari : ayah, anak laki-laki, saudara laki-laki, paman dan kakek.
c. Golongan perempuan terdiri dari : ibu, anak perempuan, saudara perempuan dan nenek.
(2). Apabila semua ahli waris ada, maka yang berhak mendapat warisan hanya : anak, ayah, ibu, janda atau duda.
Pasal 176 :
“ Anak perempuan bila hanya seorang ia mendapat separoh bagian, bila dua orang atau lebih mereka bersama-sama mendapat dua pertiga bagian, dan apabila anak perempuan bersama-sama dengan anak laki-laki, maka bagian ank laki-laki adalah dua berbanding satu dengan anak perempuan.”
Asas ini memberi hak dan kedudukan yang sama antara anak laki-laki dan anak perempuan dalam hal mewaris, bahkan dalam asa bilateral ini menetapkan juga suami isteri untuk saling mewaris.

5) Asas Keadilan dan Keseimbangan
Asas ini artinya bahwa harus senantiasa terdapat keseimbangan antara hak dan kewajiban, antara hak yang diperoleh seseorang dengan kewajiban yang harus ditunaikannya. Dalam hukum Islam, harta waris yang diterima oleh ahli waris pada hakekatnya adalah kelanjutan tanggung jawab pewaris terhadap keluarganya. Oleh karena itu, bagian yang diterima oleh masing-masing waris harus seimbang dengan perbedaan tanggung jawab masing-masing ahli waris terhadap keluarganya. Seorang laki-laki menjadi penanggung jawab kehidupan keluarganya, mencakup kehidupan pribadi isteri dan anak-anaknya, sebagaimana yang tertuang dalam Q.S. II ayat 233.

233. “ Para ibu hendaklah menyusukan anak-anaknya selama dua tahun penuh, yaitu bagi yang ingin menyempurnakan penyusuan. Dan kewajiban ayah memberi makan dan pakaian kepada para ibu dengan cara ma'ruf. Seseorang tidak dibebani melainkan menurut kadar kesanggupannya. Janganlah seorang ibu menderita kesengsaraan karena anaknya dan seorang ayah karena anaknya, dan warispun berkewajiban demikian. Apabila keduanya ingin menyapih (sebelum dua tahun) dengan kerelaan keduanya dan permusyawaratan, maka tidak ada dosa atas keduanya. Dan jika kamu ingin anakmu disusukan oleh orang lain, maka tidak ada dosa bagimu apabila kamu memberikan pembayaran menurut yang patut. Bertakwalah kamu kepada Allah dan ketahuilah bahwa Allah Maha Melihat apa yang kamu kerjakan.”
Tanggungjawab tersebut merupakan kewajiban agama yang harus dilaksanakannya terlepas dari persoalan apakah isterinya orang mampu atau tidak. Sebaliknya perempuan berhak mendapat nafkah, tempat tinggal yang layak, pakaian dan nafkah lainnya dari suaminya. Dengan mencermati kodrat laki-laki dan perempuan secara umum demikian, tidak ada kilah untuk menampik ketentuan dan keadilan Allah dalam hal pembagian waris, hal ini diperkuat dengan ketentuan pasal 176.

6) Asas Individual
Sesuai dengan namanya, asas ini berarti bahwa harta waris dapat dibagikan kepada ahli waris untuk dimiliki secara individu-individu (perorangan), bukan kelompok ahli waris, dan bukan pula kelompok suku atau keluarga. Harta waris dinyatakan dalam nilai tertentu yang kemudian dibagikan kepada para ahli waris sesuai menurut ketentuan faraidh, ahli waris berhak atas bagian yang didapatkannya tanpa terikat kepada ahli waris yang lain, karena bagian masing-masing telah ditentukan, sebagaimana pasal 183 dan pasal 187 ayat (2).
Pasal 183 :
“ Pada ahli waris dapat bersepakat melakukan perdamaian dalam pembagian harta warisan, setelah masing-masing menyadari bagiannya.”
Pasal 187 :
(1). Bilamana pewaris meninggalkan harta peninggalan, maka oleh pewaris semasa hidupnya atau oleh para ahli waris dapat ditunjuk beberapa orang sebagai pelaksana pembagian harta warisan dengan tugas :
a. mencatat dalam suatu daftar harta peninggalan, baik berupa benda bergerak maupuntidak bergerak yang kemudian disahkan oleh para ahli waris yang bersangkutan, bila perlu dinilai harganya dengan uang.
b. menghitung jumlah pengeluaran untuk kepentingan pewaris sesuai dengan pasal 175 ayat (1) sub a, b, dan c.
(2). Sisa dari pengeluaran dimaksud diatas adalah merupakan harta warisan yang harus dibagikan kepada ahli waris yang berhak.

B. Identifikasi Masalah, Perumusan Masalah, dan Pertanyaan Penelitian.
1. Identifikasi Masalah
Tugas dan wewenang Pengadilan Agama adalah memeriksa, memutus, dan menyelesaikan perkara di tingkat pertama antara orang-orang yang beragama Islam di bidang : . . . . . a s/d i; khusus penelitian terfokus pada huruf b, yaitu kewenangan di bidang sengketa waris.
Asas “personalitas Islam” – yang harus diartikan, bahwa pihak-pihak yang berperkara pada Pengadilan Agama hanyalah pihak-pihak yang beragama Islam. Dalam kenyataan ada Pewaris (seseorang yang meninggal dunia) beragama Islam, sedangkan anak/anak-anaknya ada yang beragama non Muslim. Ketentuan hukum menyatakan, bahwa hukum waris sesuai dengan hukum yang berlaku bagi Pewaris. Karena Pewaris beragama Islam – sebagaimana di contohkan di atas -
Beberapa ketentuan baru yang dikukuhkan dalam Kompilasi Hukum Islam, seperti : Ahli Waris Pengganti, Anak Angkat mendapat Wasiyat Wajibah, tidak terhalangnya anggota keluarga non Muslim untuk memperoleh harta warisan (wasiyat wajibah ?} belum sama persepsi Hakim dalam menangani sengketa kewarisan

B. TUJUAN SYARI’AT KEWARISAN
Tujuan hukum Islam dilihat dari sisi pembuatan hukum (Allah SWT) ada 3 (tiga), yakni :
1. Primer (al-dharuuriy)
2. Sekunder (al-haajiy)
3. Tertsier (al-tahsiniy)
Tujuan primer hukum kewarisan, bila tujuan disyari’atkannya hukum kewarisan tidak tercapai, maka menimbulkan ketidaklanggengan kemaslahatan hidup manusia di dunia, bahkan merusak kehidupan itu sendiri an celaka di akhirat. Oleh karenanya setiap hakim pada Peradilan Agama, bila berhadapan dengan perkara kewarisan, hendaknya selalu ingat akan tujuan primer disyari’atkannya hukum kewarisan. Tujuan tersebut hanya bisa dicapai bila terpeliharanya lima sector dalam tujuan primer tersebut, yaitu :
a) Hifdzu Diin (memelihara agama)
b) Hifdzu ‘aql (memelihara akal)
c) Hifdzu Nasbi (memelihara kehormatan / keturunan)
d) Hifdzu Maal (memelihara harta)
e) Hifdzu Nasl (memelihara jiwa)
Firman Allah Ta’ala :
“ Untuk anak laki-laki dan anak perempuan ada bagian masing-masing atas harta warisan orang tuanya dan kerabatnya, sedikit atau banyaknya sesuai menurut ketentuan yang telah ditetapkan.” (Q.S. IV : 7)

007. “Bagi orang laki-laki ada hak bagian dari harta peninggalan ibu-bapak dan kerabatnya, dan bagi orang wanita ada hak bagian (pula) dari harta peninggalan ibu-bapak dan kerabatnya, baik sedikit atau banyak menurut bahagian yang telah ditetapkan.”

Dalam satu riwayat dikemukakan bahwa kebiasaan kaum jahiliyah tidak memberikan harta waris kepada anak wanitanya dan anak laki-laki yang belum dewasa. Ketika seorang Anshar bernama Aus bin Tsabit meninggal dan meninggalkan dua orang puteri serta seorang anak laki-laki yang masih kecil, datanglah dua orang dewasa anak paman mereka, yaitu Khalid dan Arfathah yang menjadi ashabah. Mereka mengambil semua harta peninggalan Aus bin Tsabit. Isteri Aus bin Tsabit menghadap Rasulullah saw mengadukan kejadian tersebut, Rasulullah saw menjawab : “Saya tidak tahu harus berkata apa”, maka turunlah wahyu Allah SWT tersebut diatas, sebagai penjelasan bagaimana hukum waris dalam Islam.
Dari sini, nampak jelas tujuan pokok disyari’atkannya hukum kewarisan Islam sesuai dengan Maqasidu Syari’ah :

• Memelihara agama
  Islam adalah agama yang memberi tuntunan kemaslahatan hidup di dunia dan bahagia di akhirat, tunduk dan patuh dengan ketentuan nash Allah berkenaan dengan hukum waris, akan selamatlah agama para ahli waris dan juga para hakim yang adil yang menangani sengketa kewarisan.
• Memelihara jiwa
  Tidak sedikit ahli waris yang tidak selamat jiwanya karena saling berebut harta warisan, oleh karena masing-masing sudah ditentukan bagiannya, seharusnya tidak ada saling memperebutkan harta warisan.
• Memelihara akal
  Akal harus selalu dikontrol dengan baik, setiap ahli waris mengukur tindakannya atas harta waris, apakah penguasaan atas harta warisan oleh yang bersangkutan masih dalam koridor akal sehat atau karena dorongan hawa nafsu dunia saja.
• Memelihara kehormatan dan keturunan
  Berjuang untuk kehidupan dunia, pontang-panting tanpa mengenal payah, sulit, berat, beresiko tinggi, dan berbagai rintangan serta cobaan lainnya, tidak lain untuk kesenangan hidup di duniabersama keluarga. Keluarga inti terdiri dari suami, isteri, dan anak-anak. Keluarga yang lebih luas lagi ditambah dengan orang tua dan saudara-saudara. Allah SWT segera menurunkan wahyu kepada Rasulullah saw, untuk menjawab pengaduan isteri Aus bin Tsabit diatas. Hak mendapat harta warisan Pewaris Aus bin Tsabit bagi anak-anaknya, adalah tujuan syari’at memelihara keturunan tersebut.
• Memelihara harta
  Harta yang telah dikumpulkan dengan usaha yang sungguh-sungguh, haruslah dipelihara dengan baik, dibelanjakan sesuai menurut keridhaan Allah, bukan untuk belanja maksiat, berjudi, membeli khamr, atau mubazzir. Bila si empunya harta meninggal dunia, hartanya juga harus tetap dipelihara yakni dengan cara disampaikan kepada ahli warisnya, bukan untuk dijarah apalagi yang ikut menjarah adalah hakim pada Peradilan Agama (peringatan Rasulullah saw : “Tsalatsah al-qudhat”), begitu menghadapi perkara kewarisan, segeralah ingat ancaman neraka, lebih-lebih jika harta warisan tersebut milyaran rupiah nilainya.

Peristiwa hukum yang seharusnya sudah selesai tujuh puluh tahun yang silam baru sekarang diajukan, dan yang berperkara bukan lagi para ahli waris, tetapi anak dan cucu para ahli waris dalam surat gugatan tersebut mendudukkan diri sebagai ahli waris (karena tidak faham), dan ada pula yang menyebut dirinya sebagai ahli waris pengganti, atau pengganti dari ahli waris pengganti. Karena sudah sedemikian banyaknya pengganti dan pengganti dari pengganti tersebut, sehingga pihak-pihak yang berperkara mencapai ratusan orang, sedangkan harta yang dijadikan obyek sengketa hanya sebidang kebun atau sawah, yang apabila kebun atau sawah tersebut dipecah-pecah atau dibagikan kepada para pihak sudah tidaktercapai lagi tujuan untuk mensejahterakan ahli waris. Tidak saja tinjauan dari segi tujuan hukum kewarisan, tetapi masalah ahli waris pengganti yang diatur didalam pasal 185 ayat (1) KHI, dan perlu dikaji ulang, dalam pasal tersebut dikatakan:
“Ahli waris yang meninggal lebih dahulu daripada si pewaris maka kedudukannya dapat digantikan oleh anaknya, kecuali mereka yang tersebut dalam pasal 173.”

Dalam kitab-kitab faraidh tidak dikenal istilah ahli waris pengganti, umumnya mendudukkan mereka sebagai yang telah mahjub, dengan lahirnya Kompilasi Hukum Islam kedudukan anak ahli waris (bagi ahli waris yang telah meninggal terlebih dahulu dari si pewaris) terangkat. Hal tersebut logis dan telah diterima oleh masyarakat Islam Indonesia, akan tetapi hemat penulis banyak kasus yang menyambut peluang tersebut berlebih-lebihan. Sekali lagi kita harus mencermati apa tujuan diperhatikannya kedudukan ahli waris pengganti, yaitu agar anak-anak ahli waris yang meninggaldunia terlebih dahulu dari sipewaris tersebut jangan hanya menonton paman-pamannya yang sedang membagi-bagikan harta yang banyak yang berasal dari kakeknya, sedang mereka dibiarkan dalam keadaan ketiadaan. Bila nyatanya orang tua mereka dahulunya sudah meninggalkan harta yang lebih banyak bila dibandingkan dengan kekayaan paman-paman mereka tersebut, maka kata “dapat” di dalam pasal tersebut haruslah diartikan sebagai “kasuistis” bukan sesuatu yang mutlak. Dan penyambutan terhadap peluang ahli waris pengganti tersebut di suatu daerah dikatakan sebagai penyambutan yang berlebih-lebihan, dimana dalam pasal hanya dikatakan “anaknya”, tapi banyak perkara kasasi yang berperkara tidak lagi anak, tapi cucu, cicit, dan seterusnya, dalam hal ini penulis kurang sependapat, karena terlalu jauh dari sasaran tujuan di syari’atkannya hukum kewarisan dan pembagian tersebut sudah tidak bermanfaat lagi. Penulis berpendapat yang dapat menduduki posisi sebagai ”ahli waris pengganti” hanya sebatas anak saja sesuai dengan bunyi pasal 185 ayat (1) KHI tersebut.

HUKUM ACARA PERADILAN AGAMA

(Lanjutan : Pendahuluan)

Asas-asas Hukum Acara Peradilan Agama
A.1. Asas Umum Lembaga Peradilan Agama

1) Asas Bebas Merdeka
Kekuasaan kehakiman adalah kekuasaan negarayang merdeka untuk menyelenggarakan peradilan guna menegakkan hukum dan keadilan berdasarkan Pancasila, demi terselenggaranya Negara hukumRepublik Indonesia.
Pada dasarnya azas kebebasan hakim dan peradilan yang digariskan dalam UU Nomor 3 Tahun 2006 tentang perubahan atas UU Nomor 7 Tahun 1989 Tentang Peradilan Agama adalah merujuk pada pasal 24 UUD 1945 dan jo. Pasal 1 Undang-undang Nomor 4 Tahun 2004 tentang Kekuasaan Kehakiman.
Dalam penjelasan Pasal 1 UU Nomor 4 tahun 2004 ini menyebutkan “Kekuasaan kehakiman yang medeka ini mengandung pengertian di dalamnya kekuasaan kehakiman yang bebas dari campur tangan pihak kekuasaan Negara lainnya, dan kebebasan dari paksaan, direktiva atau rekomendasi yang datang dari pihak ekstra yudisial kecuali dalam hal yang diizinkan undang-undang.”

2) Asas Sebagai Pelaksana Kekuasaan Kehakiman
Penyelenggara kekuasaan kehakiman dilakukan oleh sebuah Mahkamah Agung dan badan peradilan yang berada di bawahnya dalam lingkungan peradilan umum, lingkungan peradilan agama, lingkungan peradilan militer, lingkungan peradilan tata usaha Negara, dan oleh sebuah Mahkamah Konstitusi.
Semua peradilan di seluruh wilayah Negara Republik Indonesia adalah peradilan Negara dan ditetapkan dengan undang-undang. Dan peradilan Negara menerapkan hukum dan keadilan berdasarkan Pancasila.

3) Asas Ketuhanan
Peradilan agama dalam menerapkan hukumnya selalu berpedoman pada sumber hokum Agama Islam, sehingga pembuatan putusan ataupun penetapan harus dimulai dengan kalimat Basmalah yang diikuti dengan irah-irah “Demi Keadilan Berdasarkan Ketuhan Yang Maha Esa.”

4) Asas Fleksibelitas
Pemeriksaan perkara di lingkungan peradilan agama harus dilakukan dengan sederhana, cepat, dan biaya ringan. Adapun asas ini diatur dalam pasal 57 (3) UU Nomor 7 Tahun 1989 yang tidak diubah dalam Undang-undang Nomor 3 Tahun 2006 tentang Peradilan Agama jo pasal 4 (2) dan pasal 5 (2) UU Nomor 4 Tahun 2004 Tentang Kekuasaan Kehakiman. Untuk itu, pengadilan agama wajib membantu kedua pihak berperkara dan berusaha menjelaskan dan mengatasi segala hambatan yang dihadapi para pihak tersebut.
Yang dimaksud sederhana adalah acara yang jelas, mudah difahami dan tidak berbelit-belit serta tidak terjebak pada formalitas-formalitas yang tidak penting dalam persidangan. Sebab apabila terjebak pada formalitas-formalitas yang berbelit-belit memungkinkan timbulnya berbagai penafsiran.
Cepat yang dimaksud adalah dalam melakukan pemeriksaan hakim harus cerdas dalam menginventaris persoalan yang diajukan dan mengidentifikasikan persolan tersebut untuk kemudian mengambil intisari pokok persoalan yang selanjutnya digali lebih dalam melalui alat-alat bukti yang ada. Apabila segala sesuatunya sudah diketahui majelis hakim, maka tidak ada cara lain kecuali majelis hakim harus secepatnya mangambil putusan untuk dibacakan dimuka persidangan yang terbuka untuk umum.
Biaya ringan yang dimaksud adalah harus diperhitungkan secara logis, rinci dan transparan, serta menghilangkan biaya-biaya lain di luar kepentingan para pihak dalam berperkara. Sebab tingginya biaya perkara menyebabkan para pencari keadilan bersikap apriori terhadap keberadaan pengadilan.

5) Asas Non Ekstra Yudisial
Segala campur tangan dalam urusan peradilan oleh pihak lain di luar kekuasaan kehakiman dilarang kecuali dalam hal-hal sebagaimana disebut dalam UUD RI Tahun 1945. Sehingga setiap orang dengan sengaja melanggar ketentuan sebagaimana dimaksud akan dipidana.

6) Asas Legalitas
Peradilan agama mengadili menurut hokum dengan tidak membeda-bedakan orang. Asas ini diatur dalam pasal 3 (2), pasal 5 (2), pasl 6 (1) UU No.4 Tahun 2004 Tentang Kekuasaan Kehakiman jo. Pasal 2 UU No.3 Tahun 2006 Tentang Peradilan Agama.
Pada asasnya Pengadilan Agama mengadili menurut hukum agama Islam dengan tidak membeda-bedakan orang, sehingga hak asasi yang berkenaan dengan persamaan hak dan derajat setiap orang di muka persidangan Pengadilan Agama tidak terabaikan.
Asas legalitas dapat dimaknai sebagai hak perlindungan hukum dan sekaligus sebagai hak persamaan hokum. Untuk itu semua tindakan yang dilakukan dalam rangka menjalankan fungsi dan kewenangan peradilan harus berdasar atas hokum, mulai dari tindakan pemanggilan, penyitan, pemeriksaan di persidangan, putusan yang dijatuhkan dan eksekusi putusan, semuanya harus berdasar atas hukum. Tidak boleh menurut atau atas dasar selera hakim, tapi harus menurut kehendak dan kemauan hukum.

A.2. Asas Khusus Kewenangan Peradilan Agama

1) Asas Personalitas Ke-islaman
Yang tunduk dan yang dapat ditundukkan kepada kekuasaan peradilan agama, hanya mereka yang mengaku dirinya beragama Islam. Asas personalitas ke-islaman diatur dalam UU nomor 3 Tahun 2006 Tentang perubahan atas UU Nomor 7 tahun 1989 Tentang peradilan agama Pasal 2 Penjelasan Umum alenia ketiga dan Pasal 49 terbatas pada perkara-perkara yang menjadi kewenangan peradilan agama.
Ketentuan yang melekat pada UU No. 3 Tahun 2006 Tentang asas personalitas ke-islaman adalah :
a) Para pihak yang bersengketa harus sama-sama beragama Islam.
b) Perkara perdata yang disengketakan mengenai perkawinan, waris, wasiat, hibah, wakaf, zakat, infaq, shodaqoh, dan ekonomi syari’ah.
c) Hubungan hukum yang melandasi berdsarkan hukum islam, oleh karena itu acara penyelesaiannya berdasarkan hukum Islam.
Khusus mengenai perkara perceraian, yang digunakan sebagai ukuran menentukan berwenang tidaknya Pengadila Agama adalah hukum yang berlaku pada waktu pernikahan dilangsungkan. Sehingga apabila seseorang melangsungkan perkawinan secara Islam, apabila terjadi sengketa perkawinan, perkaranya tetap menjadi kewenangan absolute peradilan agama, walaupun salah satu pihak tidak beragam Islam lagi (murtad), baik dari pihak suami atau isteri, tidak dapat menggugurkan asas personalitas ke-Islaman yang melekat pada saat perkawinan tersebut dilangsungkan, artinya, setiap penyelesaian sengketa perceraian ditentukan berdasar hubungan hukum pada saat perkawinan berlangsung, bukan berdasar agama yang dianut pada saat terjadinya sengketa.
Letak asas personalitas ke-Islaman berpatokan pada saat terjadinya hubungan hukum, artinya patokan menentukan ke-Islaman seseorang didasarkan pada factor formil tanpa mempersoalkan kualitas ke-Islaman yang bersangkutan. Jika seseorang mengaku beragama Islam, pada dirinya sudah melekat asas personalitas ke-Islaman. Faktanya dapat ditemukan dari KTP, sensus kependudukan dan surat keterangan lain. Sedangkan mengenai patokan asas personalitas ke-Islaman berdasar saat terjadinya hubungan hukum, ditentukan oleh dua syarat : Pertama, pada saat terjadinya hubungan hukum, kedua pihak sama-sama beragama Islam, dan Kedua, hubungan hukum yang melandasi keperdataan tertentu tersebut berdasarkan hukum Islam, oleh karena itu cara penyelesaiannya berdasarkan hukum Islam.

2) Asas Ishlah (Upaya perdamaian)
Upaya perdamaian diatur dalam Pasal 39 UU No. 1 Tahun 1974 tentang perkawinan jo. Pasal 31 PP No. 9 Tahun 1975 Tentang Pelaksanaan UU No. 1 Tentang perkawinan jo. Pasal 65 dan Pasal 82 (1 dan 2) UU No. 7 Tahun 1989 yang tidak diubah dalam UU No. 3 Tahun 2006 Tentang Peradilan Agama jo. Pasal 115 KHI, jo. Pasal 16 (2) UU Nomor 4 Tahun 2004 Tentang Kekuasaan Kehakiman.
Islam menyuruh untuk menyelesaikan setiapperselisihan dengan melalui pendekatan “Ishlah”. Karena itu, tepat bagi para hakim peradilan agama untuk menjalankn fungsi “mendamaikan”, sebab bagaimanapun adilnya suatu putusan, pasti lebih cantik dan lebih adil hasil putusan itu berupa perdamaian.

3) Asas Terbuka Untuk Umum
Asas terbuka untuk umum diatur dalam pasal 59 (1) UU No.7 Tahun 1989 yang tidak diubah dalam UU No. 3 Tahun 2006 Tentang Peradila Agama jo. Pasal 19 (3 dan 4) UU No. 4 Tahun 2004.
Sidang pemeriksaan perkara di Pengadilan Agama adalah terbuka untuk umum, kecuali Undang-Undang menentukan lain atau jika hakim dengan alasan penting yang dicatat dalam berita acara siding memerintahkan bahwa pemeriksaan secara keseluruhan atau sebagianakan dilakukan dengan siding tertutup. Adapun pemeriksaan perkara di Pengadilan Agama yang harus dilakukan dengan siding tertutup adalah berkenaan dengan pemeriksaan permohonan cerai talak dan atau cerai gugat (pasal 68 (2) UU No. 7 Tahun 1989 yang tidak diubah dalam UU No. 3 tahun 2006 Tentang Peradilan Agama).

4) Asas Equality
Setiap orang yang berperkara dimuka sidang pengadilan adalah sama hak dan kedudukannya, sehingga tidak ada perbedaan yang bersifat “diskriminatif” baik dalam diskriminasi normative maupun diskriminasi kategoris. Adapun patokan yang fundamental dalam upaya menerapkan asas “equality” pada setiap penyelesaian perkara dipersidangan adalah :
a. Persamaan hak dan derajat dalam proses pemeriksaan persidangan pengadilan atau “equal before the law”.
b. Hak perlindungan yang sama oleh hukum atau “equal protection on the law”
c. Mendapat hak perlakuan yang sama di bawah hukum atau “equal justice under the law”.

5) Asas “Aktif” memberi bantuan
Terlepas dari perkembangan praktik yang cenderung mengarah pada proses pemeriksaan dengan surat atau tertulis, hukum acara perdata yang diatur dalam HIR dan RBg sebagai hukum acara yang berlaku untuk lingkungan Peradilan Umum dan Peradilan Agama sebagaimana yang tertuang pada Pasal 54 UU No. 3 Tahun 2006 Tentang Peradilan Agama.

6) Asas Upaya Hukum Banding
Terhadap putusan pengadilan tingkat pertama dapat dimintakan banding kepada Pengadilan Tinggi oleh pihak-pihak yang bersangkutan, kecuali Undang-undang menentukan lain.

7) Asas Upaya Hukum Kasasi
Terhadap putusan pengadilan dalam tingkat banding dapat dimintakan kasasi kepada Mahkamah Agung oleh para pihak yang bersangkutan, kecuali undang-undang menentukan lain.

8) Asas Upaya Hukum Peninjauan Kembali
Terhadap putusan yang telah memperoleh kekuatan hukum tetap, pihak-pihak yang bersangkutan dapat mengajukan peninjauan kembali kepada Mahkamah Agung, apabila terdapat hal atau keadaan tertentu yang ditentukan dalam undang-undang. Dan terhadap putusan peninjauan kembali tidak dapat dilakukan peninjauan kembali.

9) Asas Pertimbangan Hukum (Racio Decidendi)
Segala putusan pengadilan selain harus memuat alasan dan dasar putusan tersebut, memuat pula paal tertentu dan peraturan perundang-undangan yang bersangkutan atau sumber hukum tak tertulis yang dijadikan dasar untuk mengadili.